The energy-materials nexus: the case of metals

The most prominent development in the global energy system is its continuous and rapid growth. It has grown from 40 EJ in 1900 to almost 575 EJ in 2014 (IEA, 2016), and still continues to increase. Before the Industrial Revolution, wood and biomass were the prime source. Since then, fossil fuels have become dominant and now constitute over 80% of the world's supply. Recently, not just the absolute amounts but also the share of modern renewable energy (like wind, solar and hydropower) has been increasing a little - from 0 in 1970 to 2% in 2014 (IEA, 2016). Although it presently constitutes a small part of total energy supply, it is now growing and under climate policies might become very significant as a result of a global transition towards a renewable energy system.