'Citizen minus'?: Indigenous Australians and the citizenship question

In Canada in the 1970s the catchcry 'citizen plus' expressed the aspirations of that country's Indigenous population. 'Citizen minus' more appropriately captures what most Australians believe should be the situation of Indigenous Australians. Australia's Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders were not included in the late-nineteenth century written Constitution--a document that makes no mention of citizenship. Australia's Indigenous people theoretically were granted citizenship in 1948 in the Nationality and Citizenship Act, but in practice, this was an 'empty vessel' [Peterson, N. and Sanders, W. (Eds) (1998) Citizenship and Indigenous Australians (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press)]. The State subsequently restricted the rights and freedoms of Aboriginal people, arguing they had not yet demonstrated the 'capacity' to be fully-fledged citizens. In 1967 the 'citizenship referendum' gave the Commonwealth government constitutional power to make laws on behalf of the Aboriginal population. Despite major advances in the early 1990s, there has since been a strong backlash against the recognition of Aboriginal rights, the reconciliation process has stalled, and discrimination continues in numerous forms. As Australia maintains its record as a deeply racist society, ongoing claims for Indigenous self-determination pose fundamental challenges to the State and the principles of liberal democracy.