Transporting actor networks: examining the role of human and nonhuman actors in the transfer of Bus Rapid Transit to Lahore, Pakistan

<p>In this research study, the concept of Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) is examined in a qualitative manner as an example of a transport policy concept with assumed universal applicability, having been implemented in 177 cities worldwide (BRT, 2020). However, prior research has indicated that the outcomes of BRT vary in different cities according to local and globally driven political and economic circumstances (Nguyen & Pojani, 2018; Wood, 2019b). This thesis contributes to this emergent insight using the geopolitical lens of policy mobilities, contributing to arguments that BRT implementation needs to be sensitive to geographical, cultural, political and contextual characteristics (Nguyen & Pojani, 2018; Silva Ardila, 2020; A. Wood & Wood, 2014).</p> <p>A key contribution of this study is examination of the role of non-human elements in the BRT transfer process using the lens of Actor Network Theory (Callon & Blackwell, 2007; John, 2009; Latour, 2005). These non-human elements include seemingly neutral technical and infrastructure features that have agency in creating local-level variations in BRT transfer. The thesis argues that the role of non-human actors in BRT transfer is a relatively unexplored field in transport policy transfer. Therefore, building on the literature on transport policy transfer and particularly the transfer of BRT in the Global South, the research seeks to answer the following questions: - Who were the key actors and what were their various roles in transferring BRT to Lahore, Pakistan? - How was the universal concept of BRT translated and adapted to the local geographical and political contexts of Pakistan and how have these transformations influenced the longer-term BRT outcomes?</p> <p>Using the framework of policy mobilities and a methodology developed using the approach of actor-network theory, this study argues that BRT transfer is a networked approach where both human and non-human actors are involved and create local-level variations as part of the policy transfer process. This argument is supported by document analysis, semi-structured interviews with local policymakers, a focus group discussion with urban and transport planners, and field observations. During the investigation, heterogenous assemblages that include international consultants, political leaders, local transport planners, elevated busways, platform design features and project images have been identified as actor networks. Analysis of these actor networks has revealed the implications of changing actor roles on network stability during problematising, planning, designing and implementation of BRT in Lahore, and has described the mechanisms that drove the final outcomes of the BRT transfer.</p> <p>Three main conclusions can be drawn from this research. First, by acknowledging the roles of both human and non-human actors, the empirical findings show that the transfer of the BRT concept is not merely a neutral exchange of transport technology to enhance mobility options. Instead, it is a heterogenous process and the outcome of an intact network of policymakers, international actors, political actors, transport technologies and transport planning institutions. Overall, the limited participation of local experts, lack of proper planning frameworks, inconsistent planning approach and ad hoc political interventions, as well as changing socio-political conditions of the country, shaped the BRT transfer in Lahore.</p> <p>Second, the research highlights the significant role of mass transit technology as a non-human actor in the selection of BRT. The empirical findings show that the technological element of the Istanbul BRT model drove the initial preference for this model based on a visit by the Chief Minister of the Province of Punjab to Istanbul and the close personal relationship between him and the Mayor of Istanbul. However, later the preference for BRT was driven by the signalling of contemporary mass mobility, in particular the symbolic role of an elevated route, inherent in the Istanbul BRT model's use of the Bosphorus Bridge. These drivers allowed technologies packaged as part of the Istanbul BRT solution to convince local policymakers who supported the stability and intactness of network connections of the selection of the Istanbul model as the preferred option in Lahore.</p> <p>Third, regarding the longer-term outcomes at the local level, the study demonstrates the need to consider the seemingly neutral and incidental considerations of policy mobility as part of the transfer process. After Lahore, five other cities in Pakistan also implemented BRT systems, uncritically accepting an elevated busway as part of the design, a set of decisions with major budgetary consequences for a mass transit solution that is premised on cost-effectiveness (Cervero, 2013; Wright & Hook, 2007). In Pakistan all the BRT projects now have elevated busways, which shows that the focus on symbolism in BRT has led to an elevated BRT route model.</p> <p>Overall, the research outcomes show that in the absence of clear policy guidelines, planning decisions that are quick, easy to implement and politically convenient can develop long-lasting, expensive, and unexpected planning outcomes, as observed in this study. In contrast, a comprehensive policy framework with clearly defined objectives and roles for actors can minimise the implications of symbolism in planning and enhance the outcomes of implementing a foreign transport policy concept such as BRT in a local context.</p>